Hawker Siddeley Hs 748 Pdf To Jpg
US$1.6M (1972)VariantsThe Hawker Siddeley HS 748 is a medium-sized originally designed and initially produced by the British aircraft manufacturer. It was the last aircraft to be developed by Avro prior to its dissolution.The HS 748 was developed during the late 1950s as a move to re-orientate the company towards the civil and export markets. Powered by the popular engine, it was specifically designed as a modern to act as a replacement for the aging then in widespread service. Originally intended to seat a smaller number of passengers, market research indicated that a seating capacity of around 40 passengers would be optimal for the type; as a means to differentiate the new airliner from competitors, it was designed to possess a high level of performance, including its (STOL) capabilities and overall ruggedness.
First flying on 24 June 1960, the series 1 HS 748 entered revenue service during the following year.Once in service, the HS 748 found itself a niche within the short-haul market. Several different models would be developed of the, typical improvements being the adoption of increasingly powerful Dart engines and a higher gross weight.
Perhaps the most distinct variant was the, a dedicated military transport model developed for the (RAF) that featured a large rear loading ramp and a squatting main landing gear to assist in loading bulky freight items. By 1988, the year in which production of the type was terminated, 380 aircraft had been produced between (the owning company of Avro) and Indian aviation company (HAL). During the 1990s, a larger, stretched development of the HS 748, the, was developed and had attempted to compete with market leaders such as the and, but saw only limited sales prior to production being terminated. Contents.Development Background Following the release of the, in which then- announced that the termination of almost all manned military aircraft development, aircraft manufacturer Avro decided that it should place a greater emphasis upon the civilian market. Ten years prior, it had launched a civilian airliner, the series, but this had encountered few sales; thus, during 1958, it was decided to commence work upon a clean-sheet design, which would eventually become the HS 748. On 9 January 1959, the existence of the project, then referred to as the Avro 748, was announced to the public.By this point, the four-engined had already secured the larger end of the short-haul market, therefore Avro decided that it would design a smaller, powered by a pair of engines, it was envisioned that this aircraft would be a suitable replacement for the many that were by then reaching the end of their economic lifespan. According to aviation periodical, a major goal for the design team was to produce an aircraft that would be capable of operating from any airfield that the DC-3 could be.Early intentions for the airliner was of a 20–30 seat aircraft, adopting a somewhat similar configuration to the future rival; however, following discussions with several potential customers, the company opted for a low-wing 40-seat configuration, it was this latter arrangement that was chosen for the 748 project.
Avro 748 Series 1 at, Buenos Aires, in 1972On 24 June 1960, the first Avro 748 made its from the company's aircraft factory. Flight testing of the two prototypes quickly validated the type's short-field performance. Eighteen Avro 748 Series 1 aircraft were produced; during April 1962, the first production aircraft were delivered to launch customer. However, the majority of the series 1 were export sales to operator. During the early 1960s, Avro's individual identity within the Group was expunged, after which the airliner was marketed by the parent company as the HS 748.After the initial batch of series 1 aircraft was completed, production transitioned to the improved series 2; the series 2 was largely similar to its predecessor, principally benefiting from the adoption of more powerful Dart RDa 7 Mk 531 engines and an increased gross weight.
According to aviation periodical, during 1960, the basic price for a new Avro 748 Series 1 was £176,000, while that of the corresponding Avro 748 Series 2 was reportedly £196,000.During 1967, the series 2A was introduced, which was the same basic aircraft powered by Mk. 532 engines along with a further increase in gross weight. From 1971 onwards, several new options were made available to customers, including a large freight door in the rear cabin and a strengthened cabin floor. During 1979, the Series 2B was introduced, which saw a 4-foot increase in, the adoption of Mk 536-2 engines, along with a modernised passenger cabin, and various improvements to the fuel, and engine. During 1976, Eric Johnson, sales engineering manager of Hawker Siddeley Manchester, stated that the company was studying options for equipping a model of the HS 748 with engines, and that a preferred powerplant at that point was the, as used on the jetliner. Other changes would likely have been incorporated, including the addition of lift dumpers and adaptive brakes for better landing performance, while electrical, and systems would be redesigned; externally, a dihedral would have to be introduced to keep the tailplane clear of the jet exhaust, it was envisioned that the reengined aircraft could offers larger seating arrangements of up to 64 seats.In addition to the British production line, manufacture of the 748 was also performed overseas. Early on, India had placed orders for the type.
Both the 748 Series 1 and Series 2 were in Indian manufacturer (HAL), aircraft produced by the company were designated HAL-748. On 1 November 1961, the first Indian-assembled HAL-748 made its first flight.
By the end of production, HAL had completed 89 Indian-built aircraft, 72 of which were for the and 17 were delivered to national. While the HS 748 was originally intended to be marketed principally towards the civilian market, numerous examples were sold to military customers around the world. Hawker Siddeley used the design as the basis for the, a military transport aircraft developed and produced for the. In terms of its design, the HS 780 was broadly similar to the 748, differing primarily by its redesigned rear and, which incorporated a large rear loading ramp and a squatting main landing gear to better facilitate the loading of bulky freight items.During 1988, production of the HS 748 was terminated, while the last British-assembled aircraft made its first flight on 1 December of that year. According to, a successor company to Hawker Siddeley, during the type's production life, a total of 381 aircraft had been produced, when including both the Andover and HAL-built examples. Operational history. This section needs expansion.
You can help. ( June 2019)Within its first decade of its availability, sales of the HS 748 had reportedly been relatively brisk; by 1976, the sale of 312 aircraft had been recorded, of which 259 had been to export customers. Within ten years of its launch, India had emerged as the largest single market for the airliner, being the largest HS 748 operator with a fleet of 26 aircraft, it had been popular with numerous commercial operators, across the and alone, 63 HS 748s were in operation with 11 separate operators.The HS 748 had been able to achieve some triumphs over competing rivals, including the F27 Friendship. Had been the F27's largest operator prior to its decision to replace both it and its remaining DC-3s with the HS 748, which represented a significant sales coup for the latter. Other major civil operators included,. Several of these operators would utilise its STOL capabilities in their services; according to Flight International, over one-third of all scheduled operations were reportedly involved operations from rough airstrips with minimalist facilities.Another key market for the HS 748 was the role; the type was repeatedly procured to serve as the designated aircraft for various, including of, India, and the United Kingdom; the HS 748 was one of the last planes to be flown by noted.
During 1972, Hughes performed several flights of the type, each time accompanied by Hawker Siddeley test pilot Tony Blackman, flying from the company's airport in.The Australian military purchased several aircraft; specifically, the (RAAF) procured a fleet of ten HS 748s, the first of which arriving in 1968, for navigation training and transporting; the (RAN) operated a pair of HS 748s starting in 1973 as a navigational trainer. Following, relief aid was delivered across using the type; after being fitted with various (ECM) during the late 1970s, HS 748s were also used for training.In a typical passenger configuration, the HS 748 can accommodate around 40–48 seats in a four abreast layout; however, the majority of later-serving passenger HS 748s were typically operated as quick change combis; these aircraft are fitted with a movable that divides the main cabin, housing between 4 and 40 seats in the rear section while cargo in placed the forward section. The 748 has also been widely used as a pure freighter, having a typical max payload of about 12,000 lbs. Several carriers have used the 748 as a bulk fuel hauler, in which capacity it is normally with either seven or eight fixed tanks in the cabin, possessing a total capacity of about 7500 litres (2000 US Gallons). The designator as used in is A748.
Variants. 748 Series 1 – The original Avro 748 twin-engined short / medium-range airliner, powered by two Rolls-Royce Dart RDa 7 Mk 514 turboprop engines. 24 built. 748 Series 2 – The Series 2 entered production in 1961 with a higher take-off weight and Mk 531 engines. 111 built. 748 Series 2A – Introduced in 1967, with a further increase in take-off weight and Mk 532 or 534 engines.
157 built, making the 748 one of the more successful British airliners and the 2A the most popular variant. 748 Series 2B – The main production model after Hawker-Siddeley was absorbed by British Aerospace, the 2B featured a 4-foot increase in wingspan, increased gross weight, Mk 536 engines, a modernized cabin, and systems improvements. 28 built. Super 748 – Basically the same as the 2B but fitted with engine hush kits.
8 Built. – Modified version of the 748 design for the Royal Air Force. Fitted with kneeling undercarriage, raised tail unit and rear loading ramp.External image Hi-res cutaway of BAe Coastguarder. Coastguarder – A maritime patrol version. 748 Andover – Military passenger transport versions of the 748.
HAL 748 – Licence production by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited at Bangalore India. Indian aircraft were later modified for a variety of roles including a trials aircraft for an version fitted with a large, known as the (ASP). 89 built. HAL 748 Series 2M – Production for the Indian Air Force (the last 20 built) were Series 2M aircraft with a large freight door.Accidents and incidents.
On 10 July 1965, Avro 748-101 Series 1 G-ARMV of was at. The 51 people on board survived; this was the first accident that resulted in a write-off on an Avro 748 / HS748. On 15 August 1967, two accidents involving HS-748-222 Series 2 aircraft of Channel Airways Limited, occurred roughly 90 minutes apart at Portsmouth Airport. In the first incident, G-ATEK, operating a scheduled service from Southend to Paris, via Portsmouth, landed in rainy conditions and was unable to stop in the available distance on the grass runway; the aircraft slid sideways, left the runway and stopped on an embankment. Some 90 minutes later, aircraft G-ATEH, operating a scheduled service from Jersey, via Guernsey to Portsmouth, landed and slid on the runway, crashed through a perimeter fence and came to rest on the main Eastern Road. There were no injuries in either accident, but both aircraft sustained serious damage.
An AIB investigation reported that 'both accidents were caused by inadequate braking which had resulted from the extremely low coefficient of friction provided by the very wet grass surface over the hard, dry and almost impermeable sub-soil'. On 4 February 1970, an Avro 748-105, crashed into the ground after the pilots lost control of the aircraft. The aircraft crashed at Loma Alta, and killed all 37 on board. On 9 December 1971, Indian Airlines, an HS 748, near Chinnamanur was descending into Madurai when it flew into high terrain about 50 mi (80 km) from the airport, killing the four crew members and 17 passengers. There were ten survivors among the passengers; the accident occurred in reduced visibility during daylight hours. 20 January 1976 – a HS 748-246 Series 2A registration HC-AUE crashed while flying over mountainous terrain at 10,000 feet. The aircraft struck trees with its right wing, lost control and crashed into the side of the mountain; the plane was en route from Loja to in Guayaquil,.
Six crewmembers and 28 passengers were killed; 8 passengers survived. 3 March 1978 – crashed on departure from, Venezuela, all 46 on board are killed. 7 September 1978 – Air Ceylon HS 748 4R-ACJ destroyed by fire while parked at Colombo-Ratmalana, resulting from detonation of bomb placed on board by terrorists. There were no fatalities. 31 July 1979 at Sumburgh Airport in the Shetland Islands, Scotland;, an HS 748 series 1 (registration G-BEKF) operating an oil industry support flight crashed. The aircraft failed to become airborne and crashed into the sea; the accident was due to the elevator gust-lock having become re-engaged, preventing the aircraft from rotating into a flying attitude.
The aircraft was destroyed and 17 persons died from drowning. 22 August 1979 – An (a former of the ), stole a military HS 748 from a military hangar at the in, Colombia. According to the news, this person stole the aircraft with the intention of crashing it against his parents' house. After some minutes in the air, it ran out of fuel and crashed, killing the impromptu pilot and three people on the ground.
On 26 June 1981, an HS 748 2A mail flight from to crashed at Nailstone killing the 3 crew members. While descending, the right-hand rear door detached, struck the horizontal tail plane and became lodged on its leading edge. Control was lost, and the aircraft entered a steep dive. During the dive, the wings and tail plane failed due to overstressing. On 19 August 1981, Flight 557, an HAL 748 (VT-DXF) overshot the runway at in wet weather.
The aircraft came to a halt just beyond the runway edge. There were no fatalities but the damaged aircraft was written off. One of the passengers on board was ex-Cabinet Minister for Law, Justice and Company Affairs in the Government of India. 11 October 1983 – carrying 10 people crashed at night in a thunderstorm between Pinckneyville and Tamaroa, IL. The flight originated at Chicago's and had stopped at Springfield, IL; the left generator had failed after takeoff and the first officer had mistakenly isolated the right generator.
Attempts to restore the right generator were unsuccessful; the captain elected to continue to the destination rather than return to the nearby airport. The cloud base was at 2000 feet MSL, but ATC could not provide an IFR below 3,000 feet just before the crash; the crew indicated a total loss of electrical power. The left generator drive shaft had sheared. All ten passengers and crew were killed. 27 June 1987 – crashed onto a mountain after poor visibility hampered the pilot's attempt to land at in, Philippines. All 50 passengers and crew were killed.
29 April 1995 – an HS 748 serial CR835 (4R-HVB) was hit by an missile fired by the while on approach to. All 52 occupants on board were killed. On 11 January 1999, an HAL 748 crashed into the ground after the pilots lost control of the aircraft. The aircraft crashed at, Tamil Nadu, India and killed the 2 crew and 6 passengers. 5 September 1999 – Necon Air Flight 128 from Pokhara to Kathmandu, a BAe 748-501 Super 2B (9N-AEG), collided with a communication tower of Nepal Telecommunication Corporation and crashed in a wooded area 25 km west of Kathmandu, while approaching Tribhuvan International Airport.
All 10 passengers and 5 crew were killed. 1 June 2002 – Former South African cricket captain 's scheduled flight home from to had been grounded, so he hitched a ride as the only passenger on a cargo flight in an HS 748. Near George airport, the pilots lost visibility in cloud, and were unable to land, partly due to unserviceable navigational equipment. While circling, the plane crashed into the mountains northeast of the airport. Cronje, aged 32, and the two pilots died. South Africa's High Court reached the conclusion that 'the death of the deceased Wessel Johannes (Hansie) Cronje was brought about by an act or omission amounting to an offence on the part of pilots.'
However, with Cronje's involvement in match-fixing, theories that Cronje was murdered on the orders of a cricket betting syndicate flourished after his death. 12 June 2012 – A Hawker Siddeley 748 caught fire during ground operations at Sandy Lake First Nation in Northwestern Ontario. No injuries were reported; the aircraft burned completely; only the left wing and nacelle survived. 17 February 2014 – an HS 748-371 Srs 2B at Rubkona airport in South Sudan killing one crew member and injuring the other three. The cargo plane was carrying humanitarian Aid to South Sudan.
14 November 2014 – A BAe HS-748 crashed on approach to airstrip in South Sudan, killing two crew members and seriously injuring a third crew member. The cargo plane was on a charter flight for the Lutheran World Federation and carrying relief supplies from Juba, South Sudan.Operators Civil operators As of July 2018 a total of 12 HS 748 aircraft (all variants) remained in airline service; as of September 2018 (TC) list 13 HS 748 in Canada with a current Certificate of Registration and 1 with a cancelled certificate. Current operators are:. (2). (1 as per reference above, 4 as per TC).
(1 as per reference above, 2 as per Air North, 4 as per TC). Avro Express (1).
(2). Planes For Africa (2). Safe Air Company (1). (2 as per reference above, 3 as per TC)Former civil operators. Cockpit of G-OPFW on display at the.
Avro 748 Srs 1, c/n 1543 ex- G-BEJD, at Speke Aerodrome Heritage Group,. HS 748 Srs2/225, c/n 1592 ex-Emerald Airways G-ATMI, nose and front fuselage at the,. HS 748 Srs2/229, c/n 1603 ex- A10-603, at. HS 748 Srs2/228, c/n 1606 ex-Royal Australian Air Force A10-606, at London Southend Airport.
HS 748 Srs2a/266, c/n 1714 ex-Emerald Airways G-OPFW, cockpit at the,. HS 748 Srs2a/334, c/n 1756 ex-Emerald Airways G-ORAL, nose section at the,. HS 748 Srs2a/372, c/n 1777 ex-Emerald Airways G-BVOV, fuselage underwater at the near.See also Related development.Aircraft of comparable role, configuration and era.Related lists.References Citations. The is the air arm of the. Its complement of personnel and aircraft assets ranks fourth amongst the air forces of the world, its primary mission is to secure Indian airspace and to conduct aerial warfare during armed conflict. It was established on 8 October 1932 as an auxiliary air force of the which honoured India's aviation service during with the prefix Royal.
After gained independence from the in 1947, the name Royal Indian Air Force was kept and served in the name of. With the government's transition to a Republic in 1950, the prefix Royal was removed after only three years. Since 1950 the IAF has been involved in four wars with neighboring and one with the. Other major operations undertaken by the IAF include, and; the IAF's mission expands beyond engagement with hostile forces, with the IAF participating in.The holds the rank of of the IAF. As of 1 July 2017, 139,576 personnel are in service with the Indian Air Force; the, an air chief marshal, is a four-star officer and is responsible for the bulk of operational command of the Air Force.
There is never more than one serving ACM at any given time in the IAF; the rank of has been conferred by the President of India on one occasion in history, to. On 26 January 2002 Singh became the first and so far, only five-star rank officer of the IAF; the IAF's mission is defined by the of 1947, the, the Air Force Act of 1950. It decrees that in the aerial: Defence of India and every part there of including preparation for defence and all such acts as may be conducive in times of war to its prosecution and after its termination to effective.
In practice, this is taken as a directive meaning the IAF bears the responsibility of safeguarding Indian airspace and thus furthering national interests in conjunction with the other branches of the armed forces.The IAF provides to the troops on the battlefield as well as strategic and tactical airlift capabilities. The Integrated Space Cell is operated by the Indian Armed Forces, the civilian, the.
By uniting the civilian run space exploration organizations and the military faculty under a single Integrated Space Cell the military is able to efficiently benefit from innovation in the civilian sector of space exploration, the civilian departments benefit as well; the Indian Air Force, with trained crews and access to modern military assets provides India with the capacity to provide rapid response evacuation, operations, delivery of relief supplies to affected areas via cargo aircraft. The IAF provided extensive assistance to relief operations during natural calamities such as the cyclone in 1998, the in 2004, floods in 2013; the IAF has undertaken relief missions such as in.The Indian Air Force was established on 8 October 1932 in as an auxiliary air force of the. The enactment of the Indian Air Force Act 1932 stipulated out their auxiliary status and enforced the adoption of the Royal Air Force uniforms, badges and insignia.
On 1 April 1933, the IAF commissioned its first squadron, with four and five Indian pilots. The Indian pilots were led by British RAF Commanding officer. During World War II, the IAF played an instrumental role in halting the advance of the Japanese army in, where the first IAF air strike was executed; the target for this first mission was the Japanese military base in, after which IAF strike missions continued against the Japanese airbases at, and in northern.
The IAF was involved in strike, close air support, aerial reconnaissance, bomber escort and missions for RAF and heavy bombers.RAF and IAF pilots would train by flying with their non-native air wings to gain combat experience and communication proficiency. IAF pilots participated in air operations in as part of the RAF. During the war, the IAF experienced a phase of steady expansion.
New aircraft added to the fleet included the US-built, the British,. In recognition of the valiant service by the IAF, conferred the prefix 'Royal' in 1945. Thereafter the IAF was referred to as the. In 1950, when became a republic, the prefix was dropped and it reverted to being the Indian Air Force. After it became independent from the in 1947, British India was partitioned into the new states of the and the.
Along the lines of the geographical partition, the assets of the air force were divided between the new countries. India's air force retained the name of the Royal Indian Air Force, but three of the ten operational squadrons and facilities, located within the borders of, were transferred to the.The RIAF was changed to an interim'Chakra' roundel derived from the. Around the same time, conflict broke out between them over the control of the princely state of Jammu &. With Pakistani forces moving into the state, its decided to accede to India in order to receive military help; the day after, the was signed, the RIAF.
The is the United Kingdom's. Formed towards the end of the on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world. Following victory over the in 1918 the RAF emerged as, at the time, the largest air force in the world. Since its formation, the RAF has taken a significant role in British military history.
In particular, it played a large part in the where it fought its most famous campaign, the; the RAF's mission is to support the objectives of the, which are to 'provide the capabilities needed to ensure the security and defence of the and overseas territories, including against terrorism. The RAF describes its mission statement as '. An agile and capable Air Force that, person for person, is second to none, that makes a decisive air power contribution in support of the UK Defence Mission'.
The mission statement is supported by the RAF's definition of air power.Air power is defined as 'the ability to project power from the air and space to influence the behaviour of people or the course of events'. Today the Royal Air Force maintains an operational fleet of various types of aircraft, described by the RAF as being 'leading-edge' in terms of technology; this consists of fixed-wing aircraft, including: fighter and strike aircraft, airborne early warning and control aircraft, and aircraft, aerial refueling aircraft and strategic and tactical transport aircraft.
The majority of the RAF's aircraft form part of the tri-service in support of ground forces. Most of the RAF's aircraft and personnel are based in the UK, with many others serving on operations or at long-established overseas bases. Although the RAF is the principal British air power arm, the Royal Navy's and the British Army's deliver air power, integrated into the maritime and land environments.
While the British were not the first to make use of military aircraft, the RAF is the world's oldest independent air force: that is, the to become independent of army or navy control.Following publication of the 'Smuts report' prepared by the RAF was founded on 1 April 1918, with headquarters located in the former, during the First World War, by the amalgamation of the and the. At that time it was the largest air force in the world.
After the war, the service was drastically cut and its inter-war years were quiet, with the RAF taking responsibility for the control of and executing a number of minor actions in other parts of the; the RAF's naval aviation branch, the Fleet Air Arm, was founded in 1924 but handed over to control on 24 May 1939. The RAF developed the doctrine of strategic bombing which led to the construction of long-range bombers and became its main bombing strategy in the Second World War; the RAF underwent rapid expansion prior to and during the Second World War. Under the of December 1939, the air forces of countries trained and formed ' squadrons' for service with RAF formations.Many individual personnel from these countries, exiles from occupied served with RAF squadrons. By the end of the war the had contributed more than 30 squadrons to serve in RAF formations approximately a quarter of Bomber Command's personnel were Canadian. Additionally, the represented around nine percent of all RAF personnel who served in the European and theatres. In the Battle of Britain in 1940, the RAF defended the skies over Britain against the numerically superior.
In what is the most prolonged and complicated air campaign in history, the Battle of Britain contributed to the delay and subsequent indefinite postponement of Hitler's plans for an invasion of the United Kingdom. In the on 20 August, prompted by the ongoing efforts of the RAF, Prime Minister eloquently made a speech to the nation, where he said 'Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few'.The largest RAF effort during the war was the strategic bombing campaign against. While RAF bombing of Germany began immediately upon the outbreak of war, under the leadership of Harris, these attacks became devastating from 1942 onward as new technology and greater numbers of superior aircraft became available; the RAF adopted night-time area bombing on German cities such as and, developed precision bombing techniques for specific operations, such as the ' raid by No.
617 Squadron, or the prison raid known as. Following victory in the, the RAF underwent significant re-organisation, as technological advances in air warfare saw the arrival of jet fighters and bombers. During the early stages of the, one of the first major operations undertaken by the was in 1948 and the, codenamed Operation Plainfire. Between 26 June and the lifting of the Russian blockade of the city on 2 May, the RAF provided 17% of the total supplies delivered du. A engine is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft. In its simplest form a turboprop consists of an intake, a propelling nozzle.
Air is compressed by the compressor. Fuel is added to the compressed air in the combustor, where the fuel-air mixture combusts; the hot combustion gases expand through the turbine. Some of the power generated by the turbine is used to drive the compressor; the rest is transmitted through the reduction gearing to the propeller. Further expansion of the gases occurs in the propelling nozzle, where the gases exhaust to atmospheric pressure; the propelling nozzle provides a small proportion of the thrust generated by a turboprop. In contrast to a, the engine's exhaust gases do not contain enough energy to create significant thrust, since all of the engine's power is used to drive the propeller.
Exhaust thrust in a turboprop is sacrificed in favour of shaft power, obtained by extracting additional power from turbine expansion. Owing to the additional expansion in the turbine system, the residual energy in the exhaust jet is low.The exhaust jet produces around or less than 10% of the total thrust. A higher proportion of the thrust comes from less at higher speeds.
Turboprops can have bypass ratios up to 50-100 although the propulsion airflow is less defined for propellers than for fans; the propeller is coupled to the turbine through a reduction gear that converts the high RPM/low output to low RPM/high torque. The propeller itself is a constant speed type similar to that used with larger reciprocating aircraft engines.
Unlike the small diameter fans used in jet engines, the propeller has a large diameter that lets it accelerate a large volume of air; this permits a lower velocity for a given amount of thrust. As it is more efficient at low speeds to accelerate a large amount of air by a small degree than a small amount of air by a large degree, a low disc loading increases the aircraft's energy efficiency, this reduces the fuel use. Propellers lose efficiency as aircraft speed increases, so turboprops are not used on high-speed aircraft above 0.6-0.7.However, engines, which are similar to turboprop engines, can cruise at flight speeds approaching Mach 0.75. To increase propeller efficiency, a mechanism can be used to alter their pitch relative to the airspeed. A variable-pitch propeller called a, can be used to generate negative thrust while decelerating on the. Additionally, in the event of an engine failure, the pitch can be adjusted to a vaning pitch, thus minimizing the drag of the non-functioning propeller. While most modern turbojet and turbofan engines use compressors, turboprop engines contain at least one stage of centrifugal compression.
Centrifugal compressors have the advantage of being simple and lightweight, at the expense of a streamlined shape. While the power turbine may be integral with the gas generator section, many turboprops today feature a free power turbine on a separate coaxial shaft; this enables the propeller to rotate independent of compressor speed. Residual thrust on a is avoided by further expansion in the turbine system and/or and turning the exhaust 180 degrees, to produce two opposing jets.Apart from the above, there is little difference between a turboprop and a turboshaft.
Had published a paper on turbine design in 1926. Subsequent work at the investigated axial turbine designs that could be used to supply power to a shaft and thence a propeller.
From 1929, began work on centrifugal turbine designs that would deliver pure jet thrust; the world's first was designed by the mechanical engineer. Jendrassik published a turboprop idea in 1928, on 12 March 1929 he patented his invention. In 1938, he built a small-scale experimental gas turbine; the larger, with a predicted output of 1,000 bhp, was produced and tested at the in between 1937 and 1941.
It was of axial-flow design with 15 compressor and 7 turbine stages, annular combustion chamber and many other modern features. First run in 1940, combustion problems limited its output to 400 bhp. In 1941,the engine was abandoned due to war, the factory was turned over to conventional engine production.The world's first turboprop engine that went into mass production was designed by a German engineer, Max Adolf Mueller, in 1942. The first mention of turboprop engines in the general public press was in the February 1944 issue of the British aviation publication Flight, which included a detailed cutaway drawing of what a possible future turboprop engine could look like; the drawing was close to what the future would look like. The first British turboprop engine was the, a converted Derwent II fitted with reduction gear and a 7 ft 11 in five-bladed.
Two Trents were fitted to EE227 — the sole 'Trent-Meteor' — which thus became the world's first turboprop-powered aircraft, albeit a test-bed not intended for production, it first flew on 20 September 1945. From their experience with the Trent, developed the, the first turboprop engine to be type certificated for military and civil use, the Dart, which became one of the most reliable turboprop engines built.Dart production continued for more than fifty years. The Dart-powered Vickers Vi. The is a developed and manufactured by the aircraft manufacturer Fokker.
It has the distinction of being the most numerous post-war aircraft to have been manufactured in the Netherlands; the F27 was developed during the early 1950s with the expressed intent of producing a capable successor to the earlier piston engine-powered airliners that had become commonplace on the market, such as the successful. A key innovation of the F27 was the adoption of the turboprop engine, which produced less vibration and noise which provided improved conditions for passengers. Innovative manufacturing techniques were employed in the aircraft's construction. On 24 November 1955, the F27 performed its maiden flight. Shortly after its introduction, the F27 was recognised as being a commercial success. Under a licensing arrangement reached between Fokker and the U.
Hawker Siddeley Hs 748
Aircraft manufacturer Fairchild, the F27 was manufactured in the by the latter.During the 1980s, Fokker developed a modernised successor to the F27, the, which replaced it in production. In the aftermath of the, twin-engine all-metal monoplanes such as the successful Douglas DC-3 airliner dominated commuter aviation. Over 10,000 DC-3s had been manufactured during wartime, which led to the type being available and thus encouraging its adoption by hundreds of operators across the world. By the early 1950s, various aircraft manufacturers had begun considering the post-war requirements of the civil aviation market and several commenced work upon projects aiming to produce designs for new aircraft which would be viewed as best meeting these requirements. By 1951, figures within Fokker were urging that design work be undertaken on a prospective 32-seat airliner intended as a direct replacement for the popular DC-3.
Fokker sought the opinions of a number of existing DC-3 operators on what performance increases and refinements they would expect of a new model of commuter aircraft.On the basis of this feedback, the design team chose to incorporate various new technologies into the tentative design. Fokker evaluated a number of different potential configurations for the airliner, including the use of radial engines, before settling upon a aircraft, furnished with a pair of Rolls-Royce Dart turboprop engines and a pressurised cabin which contained a total of 28 passengers; the Dart engine had proven successful on the early models of the, while a high-mounted wing had been selected as it produced a higher lift coefficient than a lower counterpart, it enabled easier ground loading due to a lower floor level and provided unfettered external views to passengers without any weight increase. In the aircraft's construction, Fokker used an innovative metal-to-metal bonding technique, resulting in a longer life, improved, a lighter structure. In 1953, the proposed airliner received the name Friendship. A total of four prototypes were produced, two of these being flyable aircraft that were used for the test flight programme and were paid for by the Netherlands Institute of Aircraft Development.On 24 November 1955, registered PH-NIV, performed its maiden flight. The second prototype and initial production machines were 0.9 m longer than the first prototype in order to addressing a revealed tendency for tail-heavy handling as well as to provide additional space for four more passengers, raising the maximum number of passengers which could be carried to 32.
These aircraft were powered by the Dart Mk 528 engine, capable of generating greater thrust. Throughout the F27's production life, Fokker proceeded to adapt the design for various purposes and roles. Via a number of modifications, such as the adoption of improved engines, rearranged loading doors, elongated fuselages, other changes, several different models of the F27 were developed and made available for commercial operators. Several military transport models were produced. Fokker chose to design a dedicated model of the F27 for conducting maritime reconnaissance missions.
During 1952, Fokker established a relationship with the US aircraft manufacturer Fairchild, interested in the upcoming F27.In 1956, Fokker signed a licensing deal with Fairchild, under which the latter was authorised to manufacture the F27 in the USA. On 12 April 1958, the first American-built aircraft conducted its first flight. Production of Fairchild built aircraft would continue until July 1973. Fairchild proceeded to independently develop a stretched version of the, designated as the FH-227; the majority of sales completed by Fairchild fell within the North American market.
In the early 1980s, Fokker decided to develop a modernised successor to the, designated as the F27 Mark 050 and marketed as the Fokker 50. Although originating from the F27-500 airframe, the Fokker 50 was a new aircraft, complete with Pratt & Whitney engines and modern systems, which led to its general performance and passenger comfort being noticeably improved over the F27; the replaced the F27 in production. In November 1958, the first producti. An is a type of aircraft for transporting passengers and air cargo.
Such aircraft are most operated by airlines. Although the definition of an airliner can vary from country to country, an airliner is defined as an aeroplane intended for carrying multiple passengers or cargo in commercial service; the largest of them are jets which are called twin-aisle because they have two separate running from the front to the back of the passenger cabin. These are used for long-haul flights between airline hubs and major cities. A smaller, more common class of airliners is the; these are used for short to medium-distance flights with fewer passengers than their wide-body counterparts.
Regional airliners seat fewer than 100 passengers and may be powered by turbofans or turboprops; these airliners are the non-mainline counterparts to the larger aircraft operated by the major carriers, legacy carriers, flag carriers, are used to feed traffic into the large airline hubs. These regional routes form the spokes of a air transport model.The lightest of short-haul regional feeder airliner type aircraft that carry a small number of passengers are called commuter aircraft, commuterliners and air taxis, depending on their size, how they are marketed, region of the world, seating configurations. The Beechcraft 1900, for example, has only 19 seats; when the Wright brothers made the world’s first sustained flight, they laid the foundation for what would become a major transport industry. Their flight in 1903 was just 11 years before what is defined as the world’s first airliner; these airliners have had a significant impact on global society and politics. In 1913, developed the first large multi-engine airplane, the, refined into the more practical with dual controls for a pilot plus copilot and a comfortable cabin with a lavatory, cabin heating and lighting; the large four-engine was derived in a bomber aircraft, preceding subsequent transport and bomber aircraft.Due to the onset of, it was never used as a commercial airliner. It first flew on December 10, 1913 and took off for its first demonstration flight with 16 passengers aboard on February 25, 1914.
In 1915, the first airliner was used by Elliot Air Service; the aircraft was a 4, a small biplane, used in World War I as a trainer. It was used as a tour and familiarization flight aircraft in the early 1920s.
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In 1919, after World War I, the designed as a long-range heavy bomber, was converted for commercial use into a passenger airliner. It could seat 14 passengers from 1919, around 60 were built.
Several publicity flights were made, including one on 8 February 1919, when the Goliath flew 12 passengers from to, near, despite having no permission from the British authorities to land. Another important airliner built in 1919 was the. In March 1919, the prototype first flew at. Nine aircraft were built, all but one being delivered to the nascent airline, which used the first aircraft for pleasure flying, on 25 August 1919, it inaugurated the first scheduled international airline service from to.One aircraft was sold to the Aviation Company in, to operate a cross-river service between.
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Meanwhile, the competing Vickers converted its successful WWI bomber, the, into a civilian version, the Vimy Commercial, it was redesigned with a larger-diameter, first flew from the airfield in on 13 April 1919. The world's first all-metal transport aircraft was the from 1919, with 322 built. The Fokker company produced the Fokker F. II and the F. III; these aircraft were used by the Dutch airline KLM when it reopened an Amsterdam-London service in 1921. The Fokkers were soon flying to destinations across, including, and Paris, they proved to be reliable aircraft.
The Handley Page company in Britain produced the Handley Page Type W as the company's first civil transport aircraft, it housed two crew in 15 passengers in an enclosed cabin. Powered by two 450 hp engines, the prototype first flew on 4 December 1919, shortly after it was displayed at the 1919 at.It was the world's first to be designed with an on-board lavatory. Meanwhile in, the Bleriot-SPAD S.33 was a great success throughout the 1920s serving the Paris-London route, on continental routes.
The enclosed cabin could carry four passengers with an extra seat in the. By 1921, aircraft capacity needed to be larger for the economics to remain favourable; the English company de Havilland, therefore built the 10-passenger, while starting work on the design of the DH.32, an eight-seater biplane with a less powerful but more economical engine. Owing to the urgent need for more capacity, work on the DH.32 was stopped and the DH.34 biplane was designed, accommodating 10 passengers. The was an important and popular transport, manufactured under license in Europe and America.
Throughout the 1920s, companies in Britain and France were at the forefront of the civil airliner industry considerably aided by governme.